来源：数据观 时间：2019-11-21 10:55:38 作者：
11月19日，由中关村大数据产业联盟主办，中国信息协会、数据观、大数据文摘等协办的网络分享会——“区块链100分”成功举行。本期分享会的主题为《区块链的概念和核心原理》。
On 19 November, a successful web-sharing session, “100 points in the block chain”, organized by the China-Kuan Village Data Industry Alliance, was organized by the China Information Association, Data View, Big Data Digest, among others. The theme of the session was “The concept and core principles of the block chain.”
分享活动中，加拿大北美区块链基金会主席、著名OpenLibra项目Violas技术社区领袖、ibank.io和creditchain.org创始人、著名区块链核心技术专家和数据库技术专家覃文延，围绕什么是区块链、区块链的核心技术等方面向大家进行了分享。
At the sharing event, the President of the North American Block Chain Foundation of Canada, the well-known leaders of the Violas technical community of the OpenLibra project, the founders of ibank.io and creditchain.org, the well-known core block chain technical experts and database technical experts shared their experiences around the core technology of the block chain and the block chain.
以下为分享全文（略有删减）：
for full shared text (slightly deleted):
什么是区块链？
区块链本质上是在多个分布式节点间传递账本（价值/数据归属权）信息并通过一定的共识机制（公共/联盟）达成一致性，建立信任关系的技术。
The block chain is in essence a technique of trusting relationships through the transfer of book (value/data ownership) information between distributed nodes and through consensus mechanisms (public/coalition).
区块链从技术上讲其实就是一个数据库。这个是基本概念，就是保存了账本记录的软件。在传统技术领域，完全属于数据库技术的范畴。
The block chain is technically a database. This is the basic concept, which is the software that keeps the book records. In the traditional field of technology, it is entirely within the domain of database technology.
只是因为其附加别的包括金融属性在内的特征才变得更有意义。但是本质上讲，是数据库。所以很多区块链技术包括Libra都会说自己首先是一个数据库。
It's only because it adds other features, including financial attributes, that make it more meaningful. But essentially, it's a database. So many block chain technologies, including Libra, say that they are first and foremost a database.
我们用这个区块链的定义就可以广泛地去审视所有的区块链项目。首先看它是不是数据库，能不能承载交易数据。很多项目印一个大大金子做的比特币，就说自己是数字货币，区块链都是骗子。
We can use this block chain definition to look at all block chain items. First of all, we can see if it's a database and whether it can carry transactional data. Many projects print a bitcoin made of large gold, and they say they're digital money, and the block chain is a liar.
这样的概念在广大人民群众中90%是没有的，大部分都很盲目。所以需要首先在区块链的定义上正试听。
This concept is not available in 90% of the population, and most of it is blind. It is therefore necessary to first try it out in terms of the definition of the block chain.
区块链在定义的内涵之外，有三个概念的外延：
The block chain extends beyond the meaning of the definition to three concepts:
1、可溯源、不可篡改：独特的遗传式链状数据结构从本质上保证数据不会被更改。数据块不会被以追溯方式更改以前的时间戳，一旦数据写入不可更改（无论现在发生什么，都不会影响以前发生过的事实）。而且这样的数据链均匀的分布在点对点的节点网络间。
1. Retroactivity, immobility: The unique genetic chain data structure essentially guarantees that the data will not be altered. Data blocks will not be altered retroactively to the previous time stamp, and once they are written, they will not change (whatever happens now, will not affect the facts that have occurred before) and the data chain is evenly distributed among the nodes network of point-to-points.
2、去中心化：区块链技术可以实现去中心的共识机制。公共账本所记录的事务（transaction）可以通过链上参与节点的多少人投票的方式校验并达成一致共识。
Decentralization: Block chain technology enables consensus mechanisms to be achieved.
3、信任机器：区块链技术是在彼此不信任的节点间建立信任关系的技术。超越数字货币，区块链是让完全没有信任机制的人民不需要通过集权方式的权威中心授权就可以建立信任并能高效协同达成一致。
3. Trust machine: Block chain technology is a technology for building trust relationships between nodes of mutual distrust. Beyond digital currency, block chains are one that allows people who have no confidence at all to build trust without being authorized by a centralized authority.
首先，可溯源和不可篡改，是由计算机技术保证的。独特的数据结构能保证，对于对计算机数据结构的朋友可以死记，有计算机技术可以保证不被篡改或者篡改会被抓住就可以了。
First of all, traceability and non-rotability are guaranteed by computer technology. A unique data structure ensures that friends with computer data structures can die, and computer technology can ensure that they are not tampered with or captured.
对于有计算机背景知识的朋友可以看下面的图帮助理解。
For friends with computer background, you can see the graph below to help understand.
区块链底层通过使用哈希指针连接的数据链表。而这个哈希指针是数据加数据本身通过加密产生的特征值在特定的时间产生的唯一的指向下一个链接数据块。
The bottom of the block chain is a data chain table that is connected by the Hashi pointer. And the Hashi pointer is the only link data block to which the characteristic value that the data itself produces by encryption at a given time.
对于不了解计算机底层技术的朋友可以用这个例子来加深印象：在家族树里，有祖父，爸爸，儿子，孙子这样的结构。任何人想要取代你，必须家族上下全部都认可才可以，否则就会被家族判为欺诈而提出家族。
A friend who doesn't know the bottom-of-the-computer technology can use this example to deepen his impression: in a family tree, there is a structure like grandfather, father, son, grandson. Anyone who wants to replace you has to accept it all up and down, otherwise the family will be convicted of fraud.
我们看上面的图，中心化是左图，去中心化是右图。左图是所有的交易和信息交换都跟中心的计算机（服务器）请求并处理。而右图则是所有的计算机之间彼此点对点进行通讯传递信息。
We look at the graph above, which is left, decentralized, right. The left is that all transactions and information exchanges are requested and processed with the center's computer (server). The right is that all computers communicate with each other.
我们现在99%的计算机系统，政府、军队、银行、保险、产业都是左边的计算机模式，大部分都是中心化的。
We now have 99 per cent of our computer systems, government, military, banking, insurance, industry are left-hand computer models, mostly centralized.
为什么需要右边的情况？假设我们需要建立一家“朝阳银行”，由于没有国家信任背书，或者大家都不太了解，几乎没有人愿意把钱存到这个“朝阳银行“里。
Why the situation on the right? Let's assume that we need to build a “Sangyang bank” and that, because there is no State trust endorsement, or because we are not all familiar with it, very few people are willing to deposit their money in this “Sangyang bank”.
所有的银行的账户体系都是中心化的账户体系，各自为政，大家都不相信”朝阳银行“。但是，如果我们采用分布式账本系统，假设北京市所有的银行都彼此共享账本，采用类似右边的计算机组网方式来同步账本，”朝阳银行“只要申请加入这个共享账本体系。存入”朝阳银行“的钱可以在所有的国有银行取出，这样人民就会”相信“这个”朝阳银行“。
All of the bank accounts are centralized, fragmented, and no one believes in "Sangyang Bank". But if we use a distributed system, assuming that all banks in Beijing share their books with each other, we use a computer network similar to the one on the right to synchronize the accounts, and the "Sangyang Bank" “as long as it applies to join the shared account system. The money deposited in "Sangyang Bank" can be removed from all state-owned banks, so that people will believe in "this" bank.
这样就是去中心化（分布式账本）技术给这个例子带来的神奇的效果，也就是说，这样的计算机技术其实是一个“信任机器”。
This is the magic effect of decentralizing (distributed accounts) technology on this example, that is to say, computer technology is actually a “trust machine”.
这是完全中心化和完全去中心化的系统变换的一张图，而且会在没有完美的中心化和去中心化之前长期存在，这也就是我们传统所说的“分布式”。
This is a map of a fully centralized and completely decentralized system transformation that will last long before it is fully centralized and decentralized, which is what we traditionally call “distribution”.
很多人纠结去中心化，其实是一个系统理想状体。也有人过分的“政治解读”去中心化也是没有意义的。本质上去中心化是一个容错机制，是一个信任机器。
And it doesn't make sense to have too much “political interpretation” of centralization. In essence, decentralization is a mechanism to accommodate mistakes, a trusting machine.
信任机器的概念图
所以我们说：区块链是信任机器，是在完全不信任节点间建立信任机制的技术，是价值网络ValueNetwork，是传递价值的互联网（InternetOfValue，IOV）。
So we say: the block chain is a trust machine, the technology for building confidence between nodes, the value network ValueNetwork, the Internet that transmits value (Internet Of Value, IOV).
在上世界90年代互联网的诞生时，机器与机器之间通过HTTP，TIP/IP协议，彼此传递的是信息。今天的区块链，是机器与机器之间因为传递价值而建立起来的信任机器本质上是传递信任。
When the Internet was born in the Upper World in the 1990s, the message was transmitted between machines and machines through the HTTP, TIP/IP protocol. Today’s block chain is the trust machine that is built between machines and machines because of the transfer of values.
区块链交换的是价值，是价值网络，是在不信任节点间建立信任关系，传递的是信任。
The block chain is a value exchange, a value network, a confidence-building relationship between nodes of mistrust, and a transmission of trust.
很多人问我，区块链是下一个互联网，而我的理解是区块链意义大过互联网。他是人类社会从蒸汽机开始的工业革命以来从蒸汽机时代，从此进入了“信任机器时代”。超越工业革命和互联网，人类社会已经进入信任机器时代，这就是我们长期倡导并且孜孜以求的数字经济时代的基础动力。
Many people ask me that the block chain is the next Internet, and I understand that the block chain is much more important than the Internet. He is the age of the “trust machine” from the time of the industrial revolution that began with the steam engine. Beyond the industrial revolution and the Internet, human society has entered the age of the trust machine, which is the driving force behind the age of the digital economy that we have long advocated and worked for.
关于区块链的基本概念，需要大家记住一下的几点：
With regard to the basic concept of the block chain, a few points need to be remembered:
1、区块链是分布式账本（数据库）技术。
1. Block chains are distributed book (database) techniques.
2、区块链数据不可篡改。
2. Block chain data cannot be tampered with.
3、区块链技术可以用去中心化的方式建立信任机器，如果进入这样的数字经济时代，我们现有99%以上的系统需要重建。包括政府、军队、银行、保险、金融机构等所有的系统。
3. Block chain technology can be used to build trust machines in a decentralised way, and if we enter this digital economy age, more than 99% of our existing systems will need to be rebuilt. All systems include government, military, banking, insurance, financial institutions, etc.
4、区块链标志着人类社会从此进入信任机器时代。
4. The chain of blocks marks the beginning of the era of trust in human society.
区块链核心技术原理
刚才讲了区块链的基本概念还有震撼的颠覆能力，那到底是什么支撑这样神奇的信任机器呢？
The basic concept of the block chain and the power of shock and subversion were just mentioned. What is it that sustains such a magical machine of trust?
首先，这三个底层技术发挥了关键性的作用：
First, these three bottom technologies play a key role:
1、数字加密哈希函数：意味着密码通过哈希函数加密后拿到的结果没有人可以反向计算出加密前的密码，但可以校对。
1. Digital encryption Hash function: means that no one can calculate the pre-encryption password in reverse, but it can be proofreaded.
2、哈希指针数据结构：保证哈希指针链接的数据链一旦产生不可更改。
2. Hashi Pointer Data Structure: Ensure that the Hashi Pointer Linked Data Chain is unalterable once it is generated.
3、非对称数字签名：意味只有自己可以签名，任何人可校验但是又没有人能修改，移动或删除。
3. Asymmetric digital signature: means that only one can sign, and anyone can verify but no one can modify, move or delete.
这三个底层技术可总结为：加密数字货币技术“三板斧”—数字瞬间变货币。
These three bottom technologies can be summarized as the crypto-digital currency technology “three axes”—numbers that change instantaneously.
马可波罗来到中国感叹中国的纸币是用树皮（做成的纸）做的点金术。今天，在数字经济时代，这三个底层技术就是新时代的“点金术”。
Marco Polo has come to China to lament that China’s banknotes are gold-pointing techniques made of barks. Today, in the digital economy, these three bottom technologies are the new era of gold-pointing.
数字加密技术通过加密操作把信息和交易数据封装在不可修改的数据块中，严格安全加密的数据块在分布式的网络间传递数字货币和数字资产。
Digital encryption techniques encrypt information and transactional data into non-modifiable data blocks through encryption operations, and strictly secure encrypted data blocks transmit digital currency and digital assets across distributed networks.
那么，什么是哈希函数？
So, what's the Hashi function?
本质上，哈希函数是一个独特的数学函数，它保证了这些加密属性。它具有以下几个特点：
In essence, the Hashi function is a unique mathematical function that guarantees these encryption properties. It has the following characteristics:
1、任意长度的任意字符串输入
1. Any string input of any length
2、产生固定长度的输出
2. Output producing a fixed length
3、可以有效的计算出结果
3. The results are validly calculated
4、抗密码碰撞
Four, anti-cipatory collision.
5、具有隐蔽性
5. Secrecy
6、可以迷宫遍历
Six. You can travel through the labyrinth.
哈希函数
哈希函数的数据结构
为什么数据不会被篡改？
Why isn't the data tampered with?
如果攻击者篡改了区块链上的任何数据，篡改过的数据都无法产生正确的（唯一的）指向下一个数据块的哈希指针。就是篡改者把整个区块链的数据和指针，也因为不知道原始输入密码而无法产生第一个头指针，从而导致网络上所有的节点都会探测到这样的篡改企图。
If the assailant tampered with any data on the block chain, the altered data could not produce the correct (sole) Hashi pointer to the next data block. That is, the tamperer took the data and pointer of the entire block chain, and was unable to produce the first header because he did not know the original password, so that all nodes on the network would detect such an attempt.
比特币的数据结构
Merkle树，所有的数据块按配对存储然后哈希指针存储在树结构上的父节点。父节点的哈希指针又再配对作为输入产生新的哈希指针作为父节点，这样一直到把所有叶节点的数据都能存储在这个树结构里。
Merkle trees, all data blocks are stored on pairs and then the Hashi pointer is stored on the tree structure. The Hashi pointer at the parent point is then paired as input to produce a new Hashi pointer as the parent point, so that data from all leaves can be stored in this tree structure.
这里我要讲一个技术创新点和商业创新点，也是中国人瞬间造富的一个动人“故事”。
Here I would like to say a point of technological innovation and a point of business innovation, as well as a moving “studies” of Chinese instant enrichment.
就是比特币的扩容事件。在2017年当比特币扩容事件，原来比特币的代码里，存储交易记录的数据块的大小被中本聪定义时只有1M的大小。单个区块能容纳的交易数量有限，扩容的解决方案首当其中想到的就是增加区块大小。
In 2017, in the case of the Bitcoin expansion event, in the original bitcoin code, the size of the data block in which the transaction record was stored was defined by Benz in Central. The number of transactions that a single block can accommodate is limited, and the solution to the expansion is first conceived to increase the size of the block.
纽约共识提出隔离验证的方案加区块大小扩容成2M。比特大陆利用机会，鼓吹创新，提出不需要隔离验证扩容8M的方案。结果制造分叉出BitcoinCash，后来改名成BitcoinABC。结果2017年8月1日20:20开始挖矿分叉比特币，最高价格BCC差不多接近一万美金一枚。
The New York consensus proposed a block-size separation and expansion of the block size to 2M. The Bit continent used the opportunity to advocate innovation and offer options that did not require isolation to verify an extension of 8M. As a result, BitcoinCash was created and later renamed Bitcoin ABC. As a result, on 1 August 2017, at 20:20, mining began with bitcoin, the highest price of which was almost $10,000.
而这个创新点就是数据结构标注“Data”的那个数据块的大小1-8，瞬间造就比特大陆和吴忌寒的个人财富。
And this innovation point is the size 1-8 of the data block that the data structure labels “Data”, creating instantaneous personal wealth on the Bit continent and U Xianxian.
我们来看看，真正的比特币长什么样。比特币不是一个金灿灿的大金币，而是下面一堆的256字节组成的类似的计算机0101010101的代码。
Let's see what a real bitcoin looks like. Bitcoin isn't a big gold coin, it's a bunch of 256 bytes of similar computer code 01010101.
上面可以通过区块链浏览器看到区块链的真实数据连接状态就是这个样子的。途中的区块链号101-102-103-104....这样链接着。
The actual data connection status of the block chain can be seen above through the block chain browser. The block chain number 101-102-103-104.... is linked to this.
第三个底层核心技术就是非对称数字签名。数学上是下面图表示。
The third bottom core technology is asymmetric digital signature. The math is shown in the figure below.
简单来说，对于非技术人员而言，就是任何事情，加密分两把钥匙，一把只用来加密和校验，另一把只用于加密和解密，最重要的地方就是校验和解密分开。这也导致了在未来数字经济社会里，我们的资产形态发生了变化。也就是，资产可以脱离中心服务器，撒遍全部网络空间。
Simply put, for non-technicals, there is nothing: encryption is divided into two keys, one is used only for encryption and verification, and the other is used only for encryption and declassification, the most important of which is verification and declassification. This has also led to a change in the shape of our assets in the future digital economy.
最后，区块链底层技术除了前面提到的“印钞术”三板斧之外，就是分布式共识机制。
Finally, the technology at the bottom of the block chain is a distributed consensus mechanism, in addition to the three axes of the “book printing” referred to earlier.
分布式共识的含义就是：所有节点同意全网校验过的交易记录。
The distributed consensus means that all nodes agree to a full web-based verification of transaction records.
如果说印钞术三板斧决定了企业和个人都可以任意印钞，那共识机制就是把这些钞票拿去分发到市场上流通的过程，这就决定了很多区块链下面的形态和本质。就是，你如何让大家相信你印的钞票有“价值”。
If the three axes of paper printing determine that businesses and individuals can print whatever they want, then the consensus mechanism is the process of distributing these notes to the market, which determines the shape and essence of many blocks below the chain. That is, how do you convince everyone that you have a “value” of the money you printed?
价值共识协议具有以下五个要素：
The value-consensus agreement has the following five elements:
1、谁维护（存储/交换）交易记录账本
1. Who maintains (storage/exchange) records of transactions
2、谁有权限决定一笔交易是合法的
Who has the authority to decide whether a transaction is legal?
3、谁是初始数字资产的产生者
3. Who is the generator of the initial digital asset
4、谁可以修改系统规则
4. Who can modify the rules of the system
5.数字资产交换谁怎么获利
5. Who will profit from the digital asset exchange
解决上面五个问题，数字货币印钞后就可以分发到一个市场或经济体了。如果这个经济体还没有对等对抗的技术，就可以形成货币战争“降维打击”。
To solve the above five problems, digital money can then be distributed to a market or economy. If the economy does not yet have the technology to counter each other, it can create a “deep blow” to the currency war.
技术上的体现，区块链通过不同的分布式共识协议获得自己特有的去中心化结果。区块链通讯协议实现的去中心化通过五个逻辑来实现差异化。
Technically, the block chain obtains its own unique decentralisation results through different distributed consensus agreements.
但是本质上，特别是在货币金融学领域，数字货币本质上讲是当前传统意义国家铸币权被通过开源软件无情的下放到数字经济企业和个人手中的一场运动，引发一场价值革命。类似我们开着一个时速200公里的汽车到宋代大街上一样，当没有交通规则的时候，汽车还可能撞死人，大部分没有见过的人还会认为这是妖魔鬼怪。
But in essence, especially in the area of monetary and financial science, digital money is inherently a movement in which the modern tradition of national monetization is relentlessly decentralized to digital economy firms and individuals through open-source software, triggering a value revolution. Just as we drive a 200-km car to Songde Street, cars can hit dead when there are no rules of transport, and most people who have not seen it will still think of them as demons.
区块链的分类
因为共识协议的不同，分类也不一样，去中心化和分布式共识机制–常见类型：公有链，私有链，联盟链和许可链。
Since consensus agreements differ, classifications vary, decentralizing and distributed consensus mechanisms - common types: public chains, private chains, union chains and licensing chains.
公有链：所有人可访问，完全去中心化，任何人任何时间都可以访问系统读数据确认交易并竞争交易记录修改权。
Public chain: All persons are accessible and completely decentralised, and anyone can access the system at any time to read data to confirm the transaction and compete for the right to change the record of the transaction.
私有链：严格限制的参与节点，指定的组织控制区块数据写权限。高效，高私密性，低成本减少被攻击的可能，很多大型的金融机构偏好这种类型。
Private chains: Participation nodes are strictly restricted, organization-controlled block data writing rights are specified. Efficient, private, low-cost, less likely to be attacked, and many large financial institutions prefer this type.
联盟链：由多家机构管理，管理机构运营的多个节点，只有这些特定节点可以有读写交易数据，数据在这些节点间传递，共同记账。
Union chains: Multiple nodes operated by the regulatory body, where only specific nodes are available to read and write transaction data, which are transmitted between these nodes and recorded together.
许可链：每一个参与节点都必须得到许可，没有许可不可以访问系统。私有链和联盟链属于许可链，许可链上的可以不需要指令牌。
Licence chain: Each participating node must be licensed and cannot access the system without permission.
当然也存在混合链，所有的节点根据情况有不同的许可和权限，（EnterpriseBlockchain就是一种）。
There are, of course, mixed chains, and all nodes have different licences and privileges depending on the circumstances (the Enterprise Blockchain is one).
下面，来看看这个共识机制的重要性和革命性。习近平总书记倡导的自主创新区块链技术大部分情况发生在这个环节，也就是共识算法和共识协议的创新。而且需要自主安全可信。
Here, look at the importance and revolutionary nature of this consensus mechanism. Much of the technology for autonomous and innovative block chains advocated by Xi Jinping General Secretary takes place in this context, namely, the innovation of consensus algorithms and consensus agreements.
假设有n个节点每个节点都有一个输入值，有些节点是存在故障或有意进行恶意攻击一个有效的分布式共识机制必须做到：
Assuming that each of the n nodes has an input value, some of the nodes are an effective distributed consensus mechanism that must be achieved with fault or intent to attack maliciously:
1、价值共识是由所有的诚实节点做出的
1. Value consensus is made by all honest nodes
2、价值必须是由诚实节点产生
2. Values must be derived from honest nodes
正是因为比特币的这个共识，导致了比特币到今天为止依然的成功。为什么比特币共识机制有效？因为它成功的防止了如下几种攻击：
This consensus of Bitcoin has led to Bitcoin’s success to this day. Why is the Bitcoin Consensus mechanism effective? Because it has succeeded in preventing the following kinds of attacks:
1、StealingAsset
要花掉币必须有所有权产生合法的交易记录。需要篡改持币人的数字签名。只要数字签名模式足够安全，外人无法通过篡改数字签名来盗窃数字资产（比特币）。
To spend the currency, the ownership must produce a legitimate transaction record. A digital signature by the bearer needs to be tampered with. As long as the digital signature pattern is secure enough, outsiders cannot steal digital assets by tampering with the digital signature (bitcoin).
2、DenialofServiceAttack
如果Alice收到Bob签名并支付的数字货币而拒绝接受并将认可的数据块写入自己广播出去的区块链中，那Bob只需要稍微等一下，所有诚实的校验过Bob合法签名和支付的节点广播过来接受的数据块就可以确保支付被记录，广播和接受传递。
If Alice refuses to accept Bob's signature and payment of the digital currency and puts the approved data blocks in the chain of the blocks that he broadcast, then Bob only needs to wait a little while, so that all honest verifications of Bob's legitimate signature and payment nodes broadcast the received data blocks to ensure that the payments are recorded, broadcast and transmitted.
3、DoubleSpendingAttack
同一个币被同时花在两笔不同的交易中的时候，只有一个交易记录会被合法写入区块链中。比如如果Alice成功的将已经支付给Bob的货币在支付给自己，那它支付给Bob的交易记录就会通不过校验而添加不到再新一轮追加的数据块中，原支付就会成为孤链而被摒弃。
When the same currency is spent in two separate transactions at the same time, only one transaction record is legally written into the block chain. If Alice succeeds in paying itself the money that has already been paid to Bob, for example, the transaction record it pays to Bob will pass through the check and not add another round of additional data blocks, and the original payment will be rejected as a chain of isolation.
比特币，超级账本、以太坊、职能合约，都是在飞速发展。以太坊Ethereum和超级账本Hyperledger是一个开源的区块链底层系统，
Bitcoin, Superbooks, Etherwood, functional contracts are all growing fast. Etherium and Superbook Hyperledger are an open-source, bottom-of-the-chain system.
提供各种API和接口快速开发区块链应用，另外还有R3（Corda）、Ripple等。以太坊Ethereum和超级账本Hyperledger都是是一个开源的区块链底层系统技术构架，就像安卓一样，提供了非常丰富的API和接口，让许多人在上面能够快速开发出各种区块链应用，而以太坊和超级账本很大的特色就是能够实现智能合约。另外还有银行联盟R3（Corda）、跨境资产转移Ripple。
There are API and interfaces for fast-developing block chain applications, R3 (Corda), Ripple, and so on. Etherium Etherium and Superbook Hyperledger are both an open-source, bottom-of-block system technical architecture that, like Andre, provides a very rich API and interface on which many people can quickly develop a variety of block chain applications, and the large features of Tai and Superbooks are smart contracts. There are also banking union R3 (Corda), cross-border asset transfer Ripple.
区块链为智能合约提供可信执行环境，智能合约为区块链扩展应用。智能合约一旦设立指定后，能够无需中介的参与自动执行，并且没有人可以阻止它的运行。而在以太坊和超级账本上的智能合约，能够控制区块链上各种数字资产进行复杂的操作。
Block chains provide a credible implementation environment for smart contracts and smart contracts for block extension. Smart contracts, once established, can be executed automatically without the involvement of an intermediary, and no one can stop them.
责任编辑：张薇
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